How self-construal and ad appeal shape the evaluation of sustainable luxury products: the interplay of self, pride, and gratitude

The global luxury market is projected to reach USD1.65 trillion in 2023, with personal luxury goods contributing USD394 billion (Bain and Company, 2023). Growth is driven by sustainability, technology, and innovation. Consumer demand for sustainable luxury is rising, with 57% of luxury consumers prioritizing it in their purchases (Deloitte, 2022). Leading brands are responding, for example, Kering targets 40% reduction in emissions by 2035 and has eliminated fur despite higher demand (Krentcil, 2023). Tesla, the top U.S. luxury car brand in 2021, exemplifies sustainable luxury through EVs and integration of solar panels, batteries, and chargers into luxury homes (Ettinger, 2022). These initiatives reflect sustainability's shift from an optional feature to a defining element of modern luxury.

However, existing literature often highlights a perceived incompatibility between luxury and sustainability, suggesting that sustainability may undermine the perceived quality of luxury products and that the extravagant nature of luxury is inherently at odds with sustainability (Achabou and Dekhili, 2013; Kapferer and Michaut-Denizeau, 2014). While previous research has linked luxury attributes such as scarcity, timelessness, and durability to sustainability, these connections tend to be functional rather than psychological, leaving a gap in understanding how to integrate sustainability into luxury branding at an emotional level (Li and Kang, 2024; Osburg et al., 2024). This research explores how sustainable luxury products can be effectively promoted through targeted communication strategies, focusing specifically on how self-construal influences consumer responses to advertisements.

Self-construal, i.e. how individuals view themselves as independent or interdependent, shapes sustainable luxury consumption (Das and Roy, 2019; Hong and Chang, 2015). Independents emphasize autonomy and self-promotion, while interdependents focus on social obligations and harmony (Aaker and Lee, 2001; Markus and Kitayama, 1991). These orientations influence emotional responses to advertising: pride appeals drive egoistic, self-indulgent behavior, whereas gratitude appeals foster reciprocity and prosocial behavior (Baek and Yoon, 2022; McFerran et al., 2014; Septianto and Garg, 2021). Environmental concern further strengthens purchase intentions, with highly concerned consumers prioritizing responsibility in sustainable luxury choices (Lee, 2008; Newton et al., 2015).

Extant research calls for deeper examination of emotional appeals and consumer characteristics in ethical (e.g. sustainable) luxury consumption (Vanhamme et al., 2023). Addressing this gap, the present study investigates how emotional ad appeals (pride vs. gratitude) and self-construal (independent vs. interdependent) jointly influence processing fluency and, in turn, evaluations of sustainable luxury products. It further examines the moderating role of environmental concern. The study proposes that independents experience greater fluency with pride-based appeals, while interdependents respond more fluently to gratitude-based appeals. Such alignment is expected to enhance product evaluations, with processing fluency mediating the effect. Moreover, when environmental concern is high, the positive impact of alignment on processing fluency, and subsequent evaluations, is amplified, whereas low concern is expected to attenuate this effect. Overall, this research advances understanding of consumer behavior, advertising effectiveness, and sustainable luxury marketing, offering actionable insights for targeting diverse consumer segments.

Luxury brands are traditionally associated with quality, scarcity, premium pricing, and heritage (Athwal et al., 2019; Li and Kang, 2024; Osburg et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2023; Tynan et al., 2010). In contrast, sustainability emphasizes ethical responsibility, social consciousness, and environmental care (Achabou and Dekhili, 2013; Quach et al., 2022). Critics argue that luxury consumption is wasteful and that sustainability initiatives risk diluting exclusivity and perceived quality (Kozinets and Handelman, 2004; Achabou and Dekhili, 2013). Consumers also tend to value craftsmanship and exclusivity over environmental and social concerns (Joy et al., 2012; Quach et al., 2022), creating tension as luxury brands strive to maintain prestige while meeting growing expectations for responsible business practices (Osburg et al., 2024; Quach et al., 2022).

However, recent literature contends that luxury and sustainability are not inherently contradictory. Proponents assert that core luxury principles, such as superior craftsmanship, durability, and heritage, are consistent with sustainability objectives (Kapferer and Michaut-Denizeau, 2014). By producing high-quality, long-lasting goods, luxury brands inherently promote sustainability through extended product life cycles and the discouragement of disposable consumption (Athwal et al., 2019; Li and Kang, 2024; Septianto et al., 2021). Sustainable luxury brands, defined as producers of high-quality, high-priced nonessential goods that adhere to socially, environmentally, and economically responsible practices, illustrate how sustainability can be integrated into luxury models (Davies et al., 2012).

Consumers purchase sustainable luxury products not only for their intrinsic value but also as a means of signaling both social status and environmental responsibility (Osburg et al., 2024). This behavior suggests that sustainability can enhance the symbolic value of luxury goods for certain consumer segments, aligning their desire for ethical consumption with the maintenance of social distinction. In this way, sustainability, rather than undermining luxury's traditional allure, has the potential to elevate its prestige by appealing to the increasing consumer demand for socially responsible consumption (Osburg et al., 2024; Quach et al., 2022). This alignment between sustainability and luxury reinforces the notion that ethical practices can coexist with, and even enhance, luxury brand perceptions.

Self-construal refers to the psychological framework through which individuals perceive and define themselves in relation to others, and it plays a pivotal role in shaping consumer behavior (Das and Roy, 2019). Originally conceptualized within a cultural context (Markus and Kitayama, 1991), subsequent research has shown that self-construal is also situationally malleable, underscoring its dynamic nature (Aaker and Lee, 2001; Hong and Chang, 2015). It captures individuals' beliefs about autonomy and connectedness: those with independent self-construal prioritize personal goals, self-expression, and uniqueness, whereas those with interdependent self-construal emphasize social harmony and relational obligations, and contextually grounded roles (Markus and Kitayama, 1991). Although individuals may exhibit both orientations to varying degrees, one typically predominates and guides cognition, decision-making, and behavior, shaping whether consumers act based on personal preferences or in alignment with perceived social expectations (Das and Roy, 2019).

Understanding self-construal is essential in sustainable luxury contexts, where both self-oriented and other-oriented motives coexist (Fazeli et al., 2020). For consumers with independent self-construal, sustainable luxury appeals that emphasize personal benefits (e.g. prestige, quality, self-enhancement) are likely to be more persuasive. Conversely, appeals highlighting collective outcomes, such as environmental or social impact, may resonate better with consumers who exhibit an interdependent self-construal. As a dynamic psychological construct, self-construal provides a valuable framework for tailoring sustainability marketing strategies to align with consumers’ self-perceptions and motivational orientations.

Emotions function as psychological signals that guide motivational responses and influence evaluative judgments (Griskevicius and Kenrick, 2013; Septianto et al., 2021). This study focuses on two discrete positive emotions, pride and gratitude, due to their differential motivational functions and alignment with self-construal orientations. Pride is a self-focused emotion associated with personal accomplishment, status signaling, and agency (Agrawal et al., 2013; Griskevicius et al., 2010; Septianto et al., 2021). It is often tied to luxury consumption, fostering conspicuous consumption and public differentiation (Oveis et al., 2010). Authentic pride, stemming from genuine accomplishments, motivates consumers to choose luxury products (McFerran et al., 2014). In contrast, gratitude is an other-focused emotion, arising from receiving help or benefits from others, and motivates social bonding and reciprocity (Algoe, 2012; McCullough et al., 2001). It fosters affiliation motives and relational warmth, thus aligning more strongly with interdependent self-construal (Stellar et al., 2017; Septianto et al., 2021).

These emotional appeals exert distinct influences on consumer responses. Pride promotes egoistic and self-enhancing behavior, whereas gratitude encourages prosociality and collective appreciation (Agrawal et al., 2013; Baek and Yoon, 2022; Septianto and Garg, 2021). Consequently, congruence between ad appeal and self-construal may enhance persuasive effectiveness by facilitating fluent message processing and favorable evaluations.

Building on the theoretical foundations of metacognitive experiences in information processing (Schwarz et al., 2021), we argue that aligning emotional appeals with consumers' self-construal enhances evaluations, particularly in the context of sustainable luxury. Prior literature in cognitive and behavioral science has long established that the subjective ease or difficulty associated with information processing affects judgment and decision-making (Schwarz, 2012; Schwarz et al., 2021). When processing becomes easier (e.g. a match between a target object and a visual cue), this fluent experience itself becomes a source of information (Schwarz et al., 2021), consistent with the feelings-as-information framework (Schwarz, 2012). The positive experience arising from fluent processing is often misattributed to the product itself, thereby enhancing evaluations (Reber et al., 1998; Mandel et al., 2006).

We argue that matching a type of self-construal with a specific emotion can affect evaluations positively. Pride is closely associated with status motives and self-presentation (Griskevicius et al., 2010; Septianto et al., 2021), and is more congruent with an independent self-construal, which emphasizes personal achievement, uniqueness, and individual distinction (Markus and Kitayama, 1991; Oyserman, 2011). In contrast, gratitude is linked to affiliation motives and relational harmony (Algoe, 2012; Stellar et al., 2017), aligning more naturally with an interdependent self-construal, which values connectedness, collective goals, and social roles (Aaker and Lee, 2001; Oyserman, 2011). When the emotional appeal is congruent with a specific type of consumer's self-construal, the positive experience arising from fluent processing is attributed to the target product itself. This should subsequently enhance evaluations of the target product. We, therefore, posit that:

Processing fluency has been defined as the subjective ease with which information is processed and is a key determinant of consumer judgments and decisions (Brakus et al., 2014; Ferraro et al., 2009; Lee and Labroo, 2004). Fluency typically signals a safe or familiar environment and is associated with positive affect (Lee and Labroo, 2004; Lee et al., 2024). Consumer evaluations are shaped not only by the substance of marketing messages but also by the cognitive ease with which they are processed (Lee and Labroo, 2004; Lee et al., 2024). Processing fluency can be affected by factors such as word simplicity and pronounceability (Graf et al., 2018) as well as visual contrast (Togawa et al., 2023).

In our case, congruence between self-construal and emotional appeal enhances processing fluency, which in turn leads to more favorable evaluations of sustainable luxury offerings. Specifically, pride appeals matched with independent self-construal and gratitude appeals matched with interdependent self-construal facilitate smoother cognitive processing and enhance product evaluations. Based on this, we posit that:

While consumer demand for cheap and disposable products highlights unsustainable consumption patterns, it also underscores the need for a shift toward more ecologically and socially responsible consumption. A key driver of this shift is environmental concern, which reflects consumers' emotional and cognitive responses to environmental issues (Newton et al., 2015). Research has shown that environmental concern is a significant predictor of environmentally conscious purchase intentions, as individuals with higher environmental concern are more likely to favor products and brands that exhibit environmental responsibility (Felix et al., 2018; Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2012; Kwon et al., 2016; Lee, 2008). Consumers with higher environmental concern tend to possess greater knowledge of environmental issues (Kwon et al., 2016; Lee, 2008; Newton et al., 2015), leading to a stronger interest in learning about and purchasing environmentally friendly products (Kwon et al., 2016; Lee, 2008). This increased awareness and engagement likely enhances their receptiveness to and appreciation of sustainable luxury products. In contrast, consumers with lower environmental concern may exhibit limited motivation or capacity to recognize and evaluate the environmental credentials of luxury products, potentially resulting in reduced engagement with sustainable alternatives.

Building on this understanding, this study hypothesizes that environmental concern moderates the effect of the alignment between advertising appeal and self-construal on processing fluency, ultimately influencing the evaluation of sustainable luxury products. Specifically, when environmental concern is high, the alignment between ad appeal and self-construal is expected to enhance processing fluency, resulting in higher evaluations of sustainable luxury products. Conversely, when environmental concern is low, this interaction effect is likely to be weaker, leading to reduced processing fluency and lower product evaluations. To explore this, the following hypotheses are proposed:

We present two experiments to test our hypotheses. Study 1 examines the joint effects of self-construal and ad appeal on processing fluency and product evaluation, while Study 2 extends this by incorporating environmental concern as a moderator and examining the underlying process.

Study 1 was designed to test H1 and H2, utilizing a 2 (ad appeal: pride vs. gratitude) × 2 (self-construal: independent vs. interdependent) between-subjects experimental design. The primary aim was to investigate the interaction between the type of ad appeal and self-construal on the evaluation of sustainable luxury products. Additionally, processing fluency was examined as a potential mediator in this relationship.

Participants and procedure. Prior to the main survey, participants provided informed consent and completed an attention check. A total of 320 individuals were recruited via Prolific, and data from 316 valid responses were retained (49.4% male). The sample was appropriate for research on sustainable luxury consumption, with 70.6% aged between 20 and 49, 76.6% holding at least some college education, and 55.6% reporting annual household incomes between USD 40,000 and $149,999. They were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental conditions. All items were measured using a 7-point Likert scale.

Self-construal measures. Participants were randomly assigned to either the independent or interdependent self-construal condition using the priming method established by Trafimow et al. (1991). In the independent self-construal condition, participants were instructed to reflect on how they differ from their family and friends. They were then asked to consider their personal expectations and complete a corresponding prompt: “For the next two or three minutes, please consider what makes you different from your family and friends. What expectations do you have of yourself? Please write down your thoughts by completing the following sentences: What are the differences between you and your family and friends? What expectations do you have of yourself?”

In the interdependent self-construal condition, participants were instructed to reflect on their similarities with family and friends and to consider the expectations these groups have of them. They were asked to complete the following prompt: “For the next two or three minutes, please consider what you have in common with your family and friends. What are their expectations of you? Please write down your thoughts by completing the following sentences: What do you have in common with your family and friends? What expectations do they have of you?”

Based on the methodology outlined by Septianto et al. (2021), after being primed for self-construal, participants responded to eight items evaluated on a 7-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). These items were adapted from Triandis and Gelfand (1998). The first set of four items evaluated independent self-construal, with statements such as: “I'd rather depend on myself than others,” “I rely on myself most of the time,” “I often do my own thing,” and “My personal identity, independent of others, is very important” (α = 0.94). In contrast, the second set of four items measured interdependent self-construal, with statements including: “If a co-worker receives an award, I would feel proud,” “The well-being of my co-workers is important to me,” “To me, pleasure is spending time with others,” and “I feel good when I cooperate with others” (α = 0.92).

Ad appeal measures. After participants received self-construal priming, they were exposed to one of two different advertisements. Following the methodology of Septianto et al. (2021), the advertisements were designed to evoke either a sense of gratitude or pride. In the gratitude condition, the tagline read: “For every moment you are grateful for,” while in the pride condition, it stated: “For every moment you are proud of.” Both ads featured the Mercedes-Benz EQE sedan as the focal product, representing a sustainable luxury option. While the imagery remained consistent across both advertisements, the textual content was adjusted to reflect the different emotional appeals.

The advertisement text highlighted the Mercedes-Benz EQE Sedan as “Mercedes-Benz EQE Sedan, a universal symbol of luxury, status, and admiration, merges electric sophistication. Every detail is considered when designing it because everyone will notice you in it. Mercedes-Benz pairs the drive of its luxury vehicles with a commitment to environmental protection. For every journey taken, you contribute to a cleaner environment with zero emissions. Show others you value clean air with Mercedes-Benz. Available exclusively at Mercedes-Benz dealerships.” The stimuli used for Study 1 were adapted from Septianto et al. (2021) and presented in  Appendix 1.

Following their exposure to the advertisement, participants completed a manipulation check by rating their responses on a 7-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 7 = extremely). To assess emotional appeals, they rated pride (“The ad makes me feel proud/fulfilled”; α = 0.90), gratitude (“The ad makes me feel grateful/appreciative”; α = 0.92). These items were adapted from previous studies by Agrawal et al. (2013) and Septianto et al. (2021). To evaluate perceptions of sustainable luxury, participants also rated two constructs: sustainability (“The ad benefits others/is charitable”; α = 0.85) and luxury (“The ad is luxurious/is a status symbol”; α = 0.81) based on the operationalization used by Septianto et al. (2021).

Processing fluency measures. Processing fluency was assessed using five items that asked participants to rate their experience studying the Mercedes-Benz EQE sedan. Responses were measured on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (unclear/incomprehensive/difficult/disfluent/effortful) to 7 (clear/comprehensive/easy/fluent/effortless), reflecting the ease or difficulty participants experienced while processing the information. This scale was adapted from Graf et al. (2018) (α = 0.92).

Sustainable luxury product evaluation measures. Participants evaluated the sustainable luxury product using a 7-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1 (bad/undesirable/not useful/low quality/unlikable/unfavorable) to 7 (good/desirable/useful/high quality/likable/favorable) (Lee et al., 2024; α = 0.96). Please see  Appendix 3 for multi-item measures used in this study.

To account for potential confounding variables, participants' familiarity with the brand (1 = not at all familiar to 7 = extremely familiar) and their level of product involvement (1 = not at all important to 7 = extremely important) were also measured. Additionally, demographic information, including gender, age, and income, was collected. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that neither brand familiarity, product involvement, nor demographic factors significantly influenced participants' processing fluency or product evaluation (see.

Manipulation checks. One-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) were conducted to assess the effectiveness of the manipulations for both self-construal and ad appeal type. To create single indices for independent and interdependent self-construal, we averaged the respective items. For the independence measure, participants who wrote about differences from family and friends scored higher (M_inde = 5.32, SD = 1.34) compared to those who wrote about similarities (M_inter = 4.19, SD = 1.53; F(1, 314) = 48.39, p < 0.001, η² = 0.13). In contrast, on the interdependence measure, participants who wrote about differences scored lower (M_inde = 4.25, SD = 1.40) than those who wrote about similarities (M_inter = 5.31, SD = 1.38; F(1, 314) = 46.35, p < 0.001, η² = 0.13). These results confirm that our self-construal manipulation was effective.

For the ad appeal manipulation, participants exposed to pride appeals reported higher pride scores (M_pr = 5.14, SD = 1.19) compared to those exposed to gratitude appeals (M_gr = 4.05, SD = 1.26; F(1, 314) = 62.16, p < 0.001, η² = 0.17). Conversely, participants who viewed the gratitude appeals reported higher gratitude scores (M_gr = 5.14, SD = 1.35) than those who saw the pride appeals (M_pr = 4.06, SD = 1.08; F(1, 314) = 62.59, p < 0.001, η² = 0.17). In addition, participants rated both the sustainability (M_sust = 5.73, SD = 1.29) and luxury (M_lux = 5.74, SD = 1.17), aspects of the product highly, with scores exceeding the midpoint on a 7-point Likert scale. These results confirm that participants perceived the Mercedes-Benz EQE Sedan as a sustainable luxury product, validating the success of our manipulations.

Processing fluency. A two-way ANOVA was performed to assess the effects of self-construal and ad appeal type on processing fluency. The analysis showed no significant main effects for self-construal (F(1, 312) = 0.67, p = 0.41, η² = 0.002) or appeal type (F(1, 312) = 0.18, p = 0.67, η² = 0.001). However, there was a significant interaction between self-construal and appeal type (F(1, 312) = 61.20, p < 0.001, η² = 0.16). Simple main effects analyses revealed that, in the pride appeal condition, participants with an independent self-construal (M_inde = 5.20, SD = 0.93) showed higher processing fluency than those with an interdependent self-construal (M_inter = 4.10, SD = 1.43; F(1, 157) = 32.95, p < 0.001, η² = 0.17). Conversely, in the gratitude appeal condition, participants with an interdependent self-construal (M_inter = 5.39, SD = 1.69) demonstrated higher processing fluency than those with an independent self-construal (M_inde = 4.04, SD = 1.44; F(1, 155) = 29.59, p < 0.001, η² = 0.16). These findings are summarized in Figure 1.

Sustainable luxury product evaluation. Similar to the results for processing fluency, a two-way ANOVA revealed no significant main effects for self-construal (F(1, 312) = 0.35, p = 0.56, η² = 0.001) or ad appeal (F(1, 312) = 0.001, p = 0.97, η² = 0.000). However, a significant interaction between self-construal and ad appeal type was identified (F(1,312) = 64.42, p < 0.001, η² = 0.17). In line with the pattern observed for processing fluency, simple main effects analysis indicated that sustainable luxury product evaluations were higher for participants with independent self-construal (M_inde = 5.34, SD = 1.53) compared to participants with interdependent self-construal (M_inter = 4.16, SD = 1.26) in the pride appeal condition (F (1, 157) = 28.47, p < 0.001, η² = 0.15). Conversely, in the gratitude appeal condition, participants with interdependent self-construal (M_inter = 5.44, SD = 1.64) rated the product more favorably than those with independent self-construal (M_inde = 4.07, SD = 1.18, F (1, 155) = 36.06, p < 0.001, η² = 0.19). These results are illustrated in Figure 1. The Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) results for processing fluency and product evaluations are presented in Supplementary material B.

Moderated mediation analysis. To examine H2, we conducted a moderated mediation analysis using PROCESS Model 7 (Hayes, 2022), with self-construal (0 = independent, 1 = interdependent) as the independent variable, appeal type (0 = pride, 1 = gratitude) as the moderator, processing fluency as the mediator, and sustainable luxury product evaluation as the dependent variable. The analysis demonstrated a significant relationship between self-construal and processing fluency (β = −1.10, SE = 0.22, t = − 4.97, p < 0.001) as well as between processing fluency and sustainable luxury product evaluation (β = 0.53, SE = 0.05, t = 10.88, p < 0.001). The direct effect of self-construal on sustainable luxury product evaluation was not significant (β = 0.02, SE = 0.15, t = 0.15, p = 0.88), but the interaction effect between self-construal and appeal type on processing fluency was significant (β = 2.46, SE = 0.31, t = 7.82, p < 0.001).

To test the significance of indirect and conditional indirect effects, we employed bootstrapping procedures using with 5,000 resamples and bias-corrected confidence intervals, as recommended by Preacher et al. (2007). Bootstrapping is a robust non-parametric method that does not rely on the assumption of normality in the sampling distribution of indirect effects, an important consideration given that such effects are often non-normally distributed. This approach enables more accurate estimation of mediation and moderated mediation effects and is particularly appropriate for models estimated using the PROCESS, which utilizes resampling techniques to generate empirical confidence intervals. Bootstrapping revealed a significant moderated mediation effect (index = 1.31, SE = 0.20, 95% CI [0.92, 1.72]). Interdependent (vs. independent) self-construal had a significant indirect effect on sustainable luxury product evaluation via processing fluency in both the pride appeal condition (β = −0.59, SE = 0.12, 95% CI [−0.83, −0.36]) and the gratitude appeal condition (β = 0.72, SE = 0.14, 95% CI [0.44, 1.01]). These findings suggest that when gratitude (vs. pride) appeals are emphasized, sustainable luxury product evaluations by individuals with interdependent (vs. independent) self-construal increase through enhanced processing fluency. Thus, the results, as illustrated in Figure 2, support H2.

The findings of Study 1 reveal the moderating role of ad appeal in the relationship between self-construal and the evaluation of sustainable luxury products. Specifically, a congruency effect emerged, whereby gratitude appeal for interdependent self-construal and pride appeal for independent self-construal resulted in significantly more favorable evaluations toward sustainable luxury products. This pattern aligns with the theoretical predictions outlined in H1. Furthermore, a moderated mediation analysis revealed that processing fluency plays a significant mediating role, supporting H2.

Study 2 aimed to evaluate H3 through a 2 (environmental concern: low vs. high) × 2 (ad appeal: pride vs. gratitude) × 2 (self-construal: independent vs. interdependent) between-subjects design. The objective was to investigate how the interaction between ad appeal (pride vs. gratitude) and self-construal (independent vs. interdependent) affects the assessment of sustainable luxury products, moderated by varying levels of environmental concern. Additionally, the role of processing fluency was analyzed as a mediating factor in this relationship. Study 2 also engaged a separate manipulation for self-construal, and a different luxury product (e.g. a handbag).

Participants and procedure. Prior to the main survey, participants were required to provide consent and complete an attention check to ensure their focus during the study. A total of 570 participants were recruited via Prolific, and data from 552 valid responses were retained for analysis (52.7% female). The sample was appropriate for research on sustainable luxury consumption, with 77.3% aged between 20 and 49 years and 78.4% having completed at least some college education. In terms of income, 66.4% reported annual household earnings between $40,000 and $149,999. All key constructs including product evaluation, processing fluency, self-construal, and ad appeal, were measured using the same validated multi-item scales as in Study 1. Internal consistency was high for product evaluation (α = 0.96) and processing fluency (α = 0.96). All items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale.

Self-construal measures. Adapting methodology from Das and Roy (2019), self-construal was manipulated following a widely used procedure developed by Krishna et al. (2008). Participants were asked to go through a reading (of a scenario) pertaining to a city visit. This reading comprised similar descriptions across the two self-construal conditions, except for the use of different pronouns to stimulate the comparative approachability of the two self-construal. We used the singular form of all pronouns such as “I”, “my”, “me”, and “myself” in the independent self-construal condition. On the other hand, we used the plural form of all pronouns such as “we”, “our”, “us”, and “ourselves” in the interdependent self-construal condition. The manipulation check procedure was identical as in Study 1. The reliability coefficients for both independent self-construal (α = 0.93) and interdependent self-construal (α = 0.93) were high.

Ad appeal measures. The procedure and measures for the advertisement appeal in this study were identical to those used in Study 1, but with different stimuli, this time featuring a Louis Vuitton handbag. The advertisement stated: “Louis Vuitton is universally recognized as a symbol of luxury, status and admiration. Every detail is considered when designing it, because everyone will notice you with it. Louis Vuitton is pairing the sale of our handmade products with an environmental action. For every item sold, we remove one pound of trash from waterways. Show others you value clean oceans with Louis Vuitton. Sold exclusively in Louis Vuitton stores.” These manipulations were validated in previous research (Septianto et al., 2021). The stimuli used in Study 2 can be found in  Appendix 2. The manipulation check procedure followed the same approach as in Study 1. The reliability coefficients for pride (α = 0.89), gratitude (α = 0.88), sustainability (α = 0.85), and luxury (α = 0.85) were high, indicating strong internal consistency across these scales.

Environmental concern measure. Environmental concern was assessed using a scale adapted from Newton et al. (2015), which included the following items (1 = not at all, 7 = very much): “I am worried about the worsening of the quality of the environment”; “Environment is a major concern for me”; “I am passionate about environmental protection issues”; and “I often think about how the condition of the environment can be improved” (α = 0.92). All multi-item measures can be found in  Appendix 3.

The confounding measures, including participants' familiarity with the brand, product involvement, and demographic information (gender, age, and income), were measured in a manner identical to that of Study 1. The results of the ANCOVA, indicating that none of these variables significantly influenced participants' processing fluency or product evaluation, can be found in Supplementary material A.

Manipulation check. One-way ANOVAs confirmed the effectiveness of the manipulations for both self-construal and ad appeal type. Participants primed with independent self-construal indicated higher independent self-construal (M_inde = 5.08, SD = 1.39) than those primed with interdependent self-construal (M_inter = 4.03, SD = 1.27; F(1, 550) = 84.73, p < 0.001, η² = 0.13). Conversely, participants primed with interdependent self-construal showed higher interdependent self-construal (M_inter = 5.17, SD = 1.49) than those who were primed with independent self-construal (M_inde = 4.09, SD = 1.33; F(1, 550) = 80.99, p < 0.001, η² = 0.13). These results indicate that self-construal manipulation was successful.

For the ad appeal manipulation, participants exposed to pride appeals reported higher pride scores (M_pr = 5.14, SD = 1.54) compared to those exposed to gratitude appeals (M_gr = 3.94, SD = 1.37; F(1, 550) = 92.95, p < 0.001, η² = 0.15). Conversely, participants who viewed the gratitude appeals reported higher gratitude scores (M_gr = 5.15, SD = 1.47) than those who saw the pride appeals (M_pr = 3.89, SD = 1.44; F(1, 550) = 102.04, p < 0.001, η² = 0.16). Additionally, participants rated both the luxury (M_lux = 5.55, SD = 1.43) and sustainability (M_sust = 5.52, SD = 1.39), aspects of the product highly, with scores exceeding the midpoint on a 7-point Likert scale. These findings confirm that participants perceived the Louis Vuitton handbag as a sustainable luxury product and that our manipulations were successful.

Moderated mediation analysis. To test H3, we conducted a moderated mediation analysis using PROCESS Model 11 (Hayes, 2022), with environmental concern as the second moderator. The analysis revealed that direct effect of self-construal on processing fluency was not significant (β = 0.68, SE = 0.67, t = 1.01, p = 0.31), and similarly, the direct effect of self-construal on sustainable luxury product evaluation was also not significant (β = 0.01, SE = 0.12, t = 0.07, p = 0.94). However, a significant three-way interaction between self-construal, ad appeal, and environmental concern on processing fluency was found (β = 0.68, SE = 0.20, t = 3.46, p < 0.001). Additionally, the direct effect of processing fluency on sustainable luxury product evaluation was significant (β = 0.58, SE = 0.04, t = 16.48, p < 0.001).

Bootstrapping with 5,000 resamples revealed a significant moderated mediation effect based on environmental concern (index = 0.39, SE = 0.12, 95% CI [0.15, 0.64]), demonstrating the moderating role of environmental concern in the indirect relationship between self-construal, ad appeal, and sustainable luxury product evaluation via processing fluency. For the low environmental concern group (−1 SD = 3.26), there was a significant indirect effect of interdependent (versus independent) self-construal and gratitude (versus pride) appeal on sustainable luxury product evaluation through processing fluency (β = 0.62, SE = 0.24, 95% CI [0.14, 1.10]). The effect remained significant, though attenuated compared to the high environmental concern group. This suggests that while the alignment between interdependent self-construal and gratitude appeals positively influences product evaluation, the impact is less pronounced when environmental concern is lower. In contrast, in the high environmental concern group (+1 SD = 6.08), the indirect effect was substantially stronger (β = 1.72, SE = 0.26, 95% CI [1.22, 2.24]), indicating that individuals with high environmental concern are more responsive to the alignment between interdependent self-construal and gratitude appeals. This heightened responsiveness leads to significantly more favorable evaluations of sustainable luxury products through processing fluency, thereby amplifying the effect of self-construal and ad appeal alignment on sustainable luxury product evaluation. These results, illustrated in Figure 3 support H3.

The findings reveal that environmental concern moderates the relationship between self-construal, ad appeal, and processing fluency, which subsequently influences sustainable luxury product evaluation. High environmental concern amplifies the positive effect of interdependent (vs. independent) self-construal and gratitude (vs. pride) appeals via processing fluency, while low environmental concern weakens this effect. The lack of a direct effect of self-construal further underscores the mediating role of processing fluency, highlighting the importance of tailoring messages to enhance product evaluation in environmentally conscious markets.

In this research, we posit that the joint influence of self-construal and ad appeal shapes luxury product evaluations, with processing fluency serving as the mediating mechanism. We further propose that environmental concern moderates this interactive effect. To test these hypotheses, we conducted two laboratory experiments. Across the studies, we used different manipulations of self-construal and employed pride versus gratitude appeals for two luxury products (a car and a handbag). These variations enhance the internal validity and generalizability of our findings. We also controlled for brand familiarity, product involvement, and demographic factors, none of which had a significant impact. Overall, our results are robust and consistent across studies. We now turn to the theoretical and practical implications of this work.

The current research addresses a gap in the literature on how emotional appeals enhance the attractiveness of sustainable luxury products (Osburg et al., 2024; Li and Kang, 2024). By demonstrating that aligning ad appeals with consumers’ self-construal enhances processing fluency, which in turn increases favorable evaluations, the study contributes new insights into sustainable luxury consumption. Previous work has highlighted the need to examine the role of emotions and consumer characteristics in ethical luxury consumption (Vanhamme et al., 2023). Our findings answer this call by focusing on the joint influence of emotional appeals (pride vs. gratitude), self-construal (independent vs. interdependent), and environmental concern on consumer evaluation.

The study extends key theoretical frameworks, including self-construal theory (Das and Roy, 2019) and processing fluency theory (Labroo and Lee, 2006; Lee and Labroo, 2004; Oyserman, 2011), by applying them in the context of sustainable luxury. While prior research (e.g. Das and Roy, 2019) demonstrated that self-construal guides pricing decisions, our work shows that it also shapes responses to emotionally framed messages in sustainability-oriented marketing. Building on Newton et al. (2015), we incorporate environmental concern as a moderator, thereby enriching our understanding of how emotional congruence influences message processing and brand evaluations (Septianto et al., 2021).

This research also contributes to the growing literature on sustainable luxury (Athwal et al., 2019; Davies et al., 2012; Li and Kang, 2024; Osburg et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2023; Tynan et al., 2010; Vanhamme et al., 2023). We demonstrate that consumers’ evaluations are influenced by the degree to which emotional appeals are congruent with their self-construal and environmental values. This alignment enhances processing (Graf et al., 2018; Oyserman, 2011), allowing brands to appeal simultaneously to status motives and ethical values. Consequently, this research identifies a psychological mechanism through which sustainability and luxury can be reconciled in marketing communications.

Moreover, the study highlights the moderating role of environmental concern (Newton et al., 2015). Consumers with higher environmental concern are more responsive to messages that align their self-construal with sustainability appeals, while those with lower environmental concern exhibit an attenuated effect. This understanding of consumer segments based on environmental concern provides valuable strategic insights for developing more tailored and effective advertising campaigns.

The findings offer actionable insights for luxury marketers aiming to incorporate sustainability and environmental, social, and governance (ESG) principles into their brand positioning and communication strategies. The integration of sustainability in luxury branding is no longer optional but essential, particularly as younger consumers increasingly demand transparency, ethical sourcing, and environmental responsibility (Shukla et al., 2025). Segmenting consumers based on their self-construal and environmental concern can enhance targeting precision and message resonance (Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2012). Pride-based appeals are particularly persuasive for consumers with an independent self-construal when sustainable luxury choices are self-driven. These messages should emphasize autonomy, personal achievement, and individual pride in making ethical, sustainable decisions, thereby reinforcing the consumer’s self-concept in responsible consumption (Agrawal et al., 2013; McFerran et al., 2014). Conversely, when sustainable luxury is purchased with others in mind (e.g. gifts or shared experiences), gratitude-based appeals resonate more strongly with interdependent consumers. These messages should emphasize relational warmth, collective benefit, and shared responsibility for environmental outcomes, reinforcing a sense of social harmony and community belonging (Algoe, 2012; Oyserman, 2011; Stellar et al., 2017). In doing so, brands can effectively navigate the paradox between luxury's exclusivity and sustainability's inclusivity, aligning with the ESG-driven expectations shaping the future of luxury consumption (Shukla et al., 2025).

The limitations of this study provide interesting avenues for future research. First, future research could conduct field studies to assess the applicability of the findings in naturalistic settings and enhance ecological validity. Second, other psychological factors, such as the desire for social status or public self-consciousness, which influence luxury consumption (Balabanis and Stathopoulou, 2021), could be explored. Third, future research could investigate the role of emotions, such as envy, which can drive both prosocial and negative consumer behaviors (Roy et al., 2024). Examining the dual effects of benign and malicious envy could offer deeper insights into how emotions shape sustainable consumption decisions in the luxury market. Finally, exploring the influence of regulatory focus and ethical ideologies (Zou and Chan, 2019) could address gaps in understanding of when and why consumers engage in environmentally friendly behaviors. By examining a broader range of psychological and social factors, future studies could provide a more comprehensive understanding of ethical and sustainable luxury consumption.

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee, and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants taking part in the study.

The authors thank the editors and anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments throughout the review process.

The supplementary material for this article can be found online.