Examining the motivations of Tik Tok use on consumer-related brand online activities on (COBRAs) and purchase intentions via TikTok among generation Z

Motivations for using social networks (SNSs) are shaped by ease of access, promotion of interaction, facilitation of communication, development of relationships and support for personal identity formation. Understanding these characteristics is crucial for understanding user interactions with SNSs to meet individual needs (Ruano and Maca, 2017). Social platforms like TikTok, offering a new experience focusing on repeated user interaction with targeted content, termed “algorithmized self” (Bhandari and Bimo, 2020), feature short videos, creative music and fun challenges that engage users (Wang et al., 2019). TikTok has become a leading advertiser, with 92% of users interacting with brands after exposure to interactive content, finding it nonintrusive and in harmony with the TikTok experience (TikTok for Business, 2021). TikTok promotes sensory stimulation and social interaction through a decentralized content model, enabling rapid link building and providing a sense of connection and high engagement, thereby allowing users to be more expressive (Abbasi et al., 2023). It is addictive, constant and relevant information stream garners more reactions and comments than other networks, maintaining the industry’s highest engagement rate at 15% and fostering accelerated brand-user bonds (Navarrete, 2024; Cheng and Li, 2024).

According to Southgate (2017), Generation Z consumers interact with brands directly, informally and individually through SNSs. This generation is characterized by rapidly evaluating information before making purchase decisions and views consumption and brand attachment as expressions of individual identity. Generation Z prefers noninvasive and integrated advertising, valuing content cocreated by brands (Cho et al., 2018). Thus, marketing tactics that facilitate interactions with Generation Z consumers can significantly reduce costs, improve connections and increase brand engagement. The topic of brand engagement, especially how Generation Z engages with new platforms, such as TikTok, has received limited attention and warrants further research. Recent studies suggest that understanding the motivations and drivers that trigger interactivity is crucial for comprehending their impact on decision-making (Bilro and Loureiro, 2020). In-depth research is needed to understand the influence of the interactive features of social networks and how they can be maximized and measured in marketing strategies (Wang, 2021).

The consumer online brand-related activities (COBRAs) model provides a theoretical framework of interest. Muntinga et al. (2011) explain that COBRAs analyze engagement by adopting a user-centered functionalist perspective, based on the uses and gratifications (U&G) theory. The U&G approach examines the effects of a given platform from a user’s perspective, focusing on how this affects engagement through the consumption, creation and contribution of branded content. This study, grounded in the COBRAs framework, addresses three significant gaps in the current scientific literature. First, there is a gap in the understanding of how interactions and content creation influence attitudinal measures on platforms such as TikTok. Another gap lies in the limited attention given to the role of consumer engagement and its effects on interactive strategies. Finally, there is a need for studies to better understand the impact of specific interactive features of digital platforms on content creation and consumer engagement (Bilro and Loureiro, 2020). These gaps reflect the rapid evolution of technologies and practices in interactive marketing, which outpace the existing academic literature. Although user-generated content (UGC) and interactive features of social networks are crucial for consumer engagement, a comprehensive understanding of these dynamics across different contexts and platforms remains elusive (Wang, 2021).

This quantitative study examined whether motivations for SNS use, such as entertainment, social interaction, personal identity, information seeking, remuneration and empowerment, influence Generation Z TikTok users’ behaviors in consuming, creating and contributing branded content. Second, we examined whether the branded content on TikTok significantly affects Generation Z users’ ongoing consumption, creation and contribution. Finally, we examined whether consuming, creating and contributing to branded content by Generation Z TikTok users had a measurable impact on purchase intention. The results of this study provide important theoretical and practical contributions to understanding how the interactive functions of social platforms such as TikTok impact forms of consumer engagement and their effectiveness in marketing strategies. The remainder of this paper proceeds with literature review, methodology and implications.

Engagement studies in marketing have focused on the impact of organizational activities on consumer behavior by adopting a psychological and interactive approach (Harmeling et al., 2016). Customer engagement involves a customer’s voluntary contribution to a company’s marketing, beyond financial support. Engagement in marketing is a firm’s effort to motivate and measure customers’ voluntary contribution to marketing functions (Harmeling et al., 2016; Vivek et al., 2014). Muntinga et al. (2011) developed a three-dimensional framework for COBRAs, focusing on consumer consumption, create and contribute of branded content. This approach, rooted in U&G theory, examines how user gratifications affect these engagement forms. However, Bilro and Loureiro (2020) identified five types of engagement in consumer behavior: consumer engagement, online brand community engagement, consumer-brand engagement (CBE), consumer engagement behaviors and media engagement. Our analysis posits that understanding COBRAs in Generation Z TikTok users requires a U&G theory-based functionalist perspective that emphasizes media engagement. We argue that users’ motivations for media engagement provide dynamic gratification. Additionally, COBRAs are reinforced by CBE, offering a deeper understanding of consumers’ emotional, cognitive and behavioral connections with a brand (Schivinski et al., 2021).

SNS use, a complex and multidimensional variable, significantly influences consumer behavior (Whiting and Williams, 2013). This involves connecting active audiences to various motivations (Traymbak et al., 2022). Muntinga et al. (2011) note that usage-based typologies, while less common in SNS contexts, suggest that people engage in multiple behaviors. SNS platforms facilitate interaction, information-sharing and collaboration, leading to diverse forms of participation (Song and Yoo, 2016). Cuesta-Valiño et al. (2022) highlight that Generation Z consumers reflect high retention among the remaining TikTok users. This can be explained by the individual’s motivation to use the platform. Thus, SNS use extends beyond consumption to active participatory engagement (Arafah and Hasyim, 2022). These motivations were examined using U&G theory, which takes a user-focused view to explain media behavior as goal-driven (Muntinga et al., 2011).

Katz et al. (1973) introduced the U&G theory, positing that individuals use media to satisfy specific needs. This theory is twofold: first, it explores how individuals approach media with goals, and second, it examines how media fulfills the cognitive and affective needs of users (Quan-Haase, 2012). The COBRAs model integrates elements such as entertainment, social integration, personal identity, information seeking, remuneration and empowerment to explain user gratification in SNS use from a U&G perspective (McQuail et al., 1972). Therefore, this study analyzes TikTok user motivations in brand interactions on SNSs through the six dimensions outlined in the COBRAs, as detailed in Table 1.

SNS users engage in various interactions that lead to media engagement, which is characterized by content consumption, participation and contribution to platforms (Shao, 2009). Media engagement, either positive or negative, reflects a deep connection between the consumer and medium, influencing various marketing actions (Bilro and Loureiro, 2020). Studies suggest that media engagement begins with passive use, evolves into active use, and is founded upon fulfilling hedonic and utilitarian needs, triggering specific behaviors (Omar and Dequan, 2020).

Muntinga et al. (2011) suggest that the initial phase of COBRAs is content consumption, which is considered passive behavior. Within this context, hedonic gratification, particularly enjoyment derived from content, plays a pivotal role. Entertainment, remuneration and empowerment have been identified as the key motivational drivers of such passive behaviors (Gan and Li, 2018). Among Generation Z users of TikTok, passive use significantly influences content consumption, shaped by these motivational factors and facilitated by TikTok’s decentralized content delivery model (Flecha-Ortiz et al., 2023). In contrast to other SNSs, TikTok uniquely fulfills hedonic gratifications, such as entertainment (Abbasi et al., 2023), enjoyment (Pranata et al., 2024), real-time interaction, the sense of immediacy and connections with influencers (Barta et al., 2023). These experiences are enhanced by TikTok’s algorithmic content curation, which optimizes users’ exposure to tailored content and offers a level of hedonic intensity that platforms such as Instagram often fail to replicate (Barta et al., 2023). Consequently, media engagement in TikTok transcends passive consumption, providing users with substantial psychological pleasure.

The literature indicates that hedonic gratifications such as entertainment (Abbasi et al., 2023), remuneration (Clerke and Heerey, 2022) and empowerment (Shukla et al., 2023) significantly affect branded content consumption. Although initially hedonic, information seeking can lead to active engagement by fulfilling fun and knowledge needs (Meservy et al., 2019). Engagement with the media encourages consumers to actively create and contribute content, aid visibility and make decisions (Heng Wei et al., 2023). These gratifications, combined with media engagement, influence active behavior in content creation and contributions (Veybitha et al., 2021). This leads us to propose the following hypothesis:

The antecedents indicate that once hedonic gratifications are fulfilled, users often transition to active behaviors oriented toward utilitarian gratifications. Utilitarianism, grounded in the maximization of welfare or utility, encompasses dimensions such as personal identity and social integration (Omar and Dequan, 2020). Engagement with media platforms facilitates the construction of self-identity and encourages social interactions, thereby strengthening interpersonal connections (Goldfarb et al., 2015). Empirical evidence reveals that, unlike other social media platforms such as Facebook, YouTube and Instagram, TikTok users derive utilitarian benefits from the spontaneous creation of content, which typically requires little to no prior planning (Chen et al., 2024). These affordances position TikTok as a multifunctional platform that effectively integrates entertainment with practical utility, surpassing the capabilities of other social media platforms in delivering a holistic user experience.

Research indicates that SNS interactions prompt branded content consume, create and contribute behaviors (Cheung et al., 2021). Personal identity, involving self-expression and self-presentation, significantly influences these behaviors, especially among young users seeking validation and visibility (Meservy et al., 2019; Bucknell Bossen and Kottasz, 2020). However, its effects on content consumption remain unclear (Choi and Sung, 2018). Tang (2019) also associates these behaviors with social integration and interaction. TikTok’s facilitation of content virtualization and the desire for likes and comments explain content creation and contribution behaviors (Bucknell Bossen and Kottasz, 2020). These actions aim to increase followers and satisfy social interaction needs (Yang et al., 2019), thereby affecting the methods of content creation and contributing to enhanced visibility and user connections (Tang, 2019). This formed the basis of our hypotheses:

Personal identity gratification motivation has a positive impact on H5a. content consume; H5b. content create; H5c. content create among Generation Z when using TikTok.

COBRAs serve as a model to examine engagement by analyzing how certain motivations impact consumer interactions with online brand activities (Muntinga et al., 2011). The COBRAs model differs from other approaches to consumer engagement in that it focuses exclusively on observable behaviors in digital environments, categorizing interactions into consume, create and contribute. Unlike classical models that analyze it as a cognitive, affective and behavioral process, they use a multidimensional approach (Brodie et al., 2013; Vivek et al., 2014). This is how COBRAs provide a behavioral typology that allows for direct tactical applications in marketing strategies. However, COBRAs have limitations when examining brand-related consumer actions. Thus, CBE provides a more comprehensive analysis of these actions, emphasizing the affective, cognitive and behavioral connections between consumers and brands (Bilro and Loureiro, 2020). CBE encompasses consumer actions that extend beyond merely viewing or reading brand information, and is regarded as a multidimensional variable (Paine, 2011; France et al., 2016).

Muntinga et al. (2011) explain that engagement COBRAs, which drive online brand interaction, are sequentially explained through the dimensions of consume, create and contribute. Research using the COBRAs framework affirms these sequential impacts and their diverse effects on consumer attitudes (Schivinski et al., 2021; Nastisin et al., 2023). This psychological state between consumers and brands, shaped by interaction, notably influences other behavioral measures (Brodie et al., 2013; Hollebeek and Macky, 2019). Based on this understanding, we propose the following hypothesis:

Purchase intention is defined as the mental phase in which consumers develop a willingness to purchase a product or brand (Hutter et al., 2013). Muntinga et al. (2011) state that both consume, create and contribute are interconnected and mutually reinforcing in consumer behavior. Studies highlight that TikTok facilitates engagement with brands, enabling the establishment of improved offers that strengthen engagement, and, in turn, trigger interactivity resulting in purchase intent (Rangaswamy et al., 2020). Thus, interacting with TikTok by consuming, creating and contributing content helps us to examine its impact on purchase intent.

Muntinga et al. (2011) explain that user motivation for content consumption on social networks is tied to brand engagement activities like reading posts, viewing photos and watching videos. In addition, brand consumption encourages consumer contribution. Related studies have indicated that short video consumption (Kang, 2023) and the attractiveness of branded content (He and Qu, 2018) influence the purchase intentions of Generation Z consumers (Qin, 2020; Buzeta et al., 2020). However, the link between TikTok content consumption and its direct effect on content contribution and purchase intention among Generation Z users has not been clearly defined in the literature. Ruiz (2021) suggests that TikTok users are more responsive to brand messages and calls to action due to the content’s likeability. This response could be attributed to several factors:

Muntinga et al. (2011) describe user motivation to contribute to brand discussions on social networks as activities like commenting, liking or sharing posts. Research on social media indicates that contributing to branded content influences its creation (Mitchell et al., 2016). Studies have shown that content sharing (Bayer et al., 2016) affects purchase intentions (Qin, 2020). In the context of Generation Z, research demonstrates how SNS contribution to branded content directly affects behavioral outcomes such as purchase intention (Ismail et al., 2020). However, studies specifically examining platforms such as TikTok and Generation Z are limited, leading us to hypothesize the following:

Muntinga et al. (2011) outline that creating content related to a brand on social networks involves publishing personal photos or videos and sharing experiences with the brand. Such UGC has been extensively analyzed. Research indicates that creating branded content positively influences purchase intentions (Sethna et al., 2017). Toni and Mattia (2021) observe that using branded hashtag challenges on TikTok does not directly lead to purchases by Generation Z but generates product interest. Studies focusing on TikTok in Generation Z suggest that engagement behaviors act as catalysts for purchase intentions (Lontoh et al., 2022). The platform’s effectiveness in engaging users with brands and ease of creating branded content are linked to interactivity and purchase intent (Rangaswamy et al., 2020). Based on this understanding, we propose the following hypothesis:

Our study tested the conceptual model in Figure 1 using partial least squares structural equation modeling Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) on a sample of 403 active Generation Z TikTok users, aged 21–25, residing in all islands of Puerto Rico. PLS-SEM was used because of its suitability for predictive models with complex structures and moderate samples, overcoming the limitations of normality and strict adjustments required by CB-SEM (Sarstedt et al., 2014). Furthermore, its variance-oriented approach makes it more suitable for research focused on theoretical exploration and development of emerging models (Hair et al., 2011).

Data were collected via simple random sampling using an online survey distributed via Facebook, Instagram and an e-mail database. The sample targeted TikTok users aged 21–25 years residing in Puerto Rico. A demographically segmented advertising campaign enhances representativeness. Interested participants received an information sheet outlining the study’s purpose, criteria, benefits, risks and data-protection measures. Participation was voluntary and anonymous. The study received Institutional Review Board approval, ensuring ethical compliance. A random sampling strategy was employed, using an online survey distributed via Facebook, Instagram and e-mail. Measures to reduce the sample and self-selection bias included nonreplacement sampling, single-access survey coding and expanded distribution channels. Of the 895 responses, 403 were deemed valid. The data were analyzed using SMART-PLS. The sample reflected TikTok’s user profile: 66.5% were female and 33.5% male. Daily usage was reported as follows: 56.3% used TikTok for 1 h, 29.3% for 2 h and 14.4% for 3 h or more.

To create the survey instrument (Table 2), we combined and adapted scales from existing literature to fit the TikTok content model. The instrument comprises 34 items across ten variables: personal identity (three items), integration and social interaction (three items), information seeking (three items), entertainment (four items), remuneration (three items), empowerment (three items), consumption (three items), contribution (three items), creation (three items) and purchase motivation (six items). A five-point Likert scale was used, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The use of the Likert scale to measure the items was based on its ability to offer simplicity and clarity in data collection, which facilitates interpretation by the respondents, especially when dealing with a young audience such as Generation Z (Joshi et al., 2015).

The instruments of the COBRA studies informed the analysis of all items except purchase intention, drawing on models from Piehler et al. (2019) and Lee et al. (2019). This process of adapting the scales allowed contextualizing the items to the interactive environment and particularities of TikTok, thus maximizing the accuracy in capturing user behavior and motivations. For linguistic clarity, the items were translated into English and Spanish, respectively. The entertainment variable included an extra item due to TikTok’s interactive nature. Purchase intention items, based on Alalwan (2018), measured intent, motivation and willingness to purchase products featuring TikTok content interactions.

As presented in Table 1, the measurement model exhibits strong convergent validity, with standardized loadings, Cronbach’s alpha and average variance extracted (AVE) values surpassing the recommended thresholds of 0.70 and 0.50, respectively (Hair et al., 2021). Discriminant validity, assessed using the HTMT ratio (Table 2), remains within the accepted limit of 0.90 (Henseler et al., 2014). Collectively, these results confirm the internal consistency, reliability and construct distinctiveness of the model, thereby supporting the robustness of the structural analysis and validity of subsequent interpretations.

Before presenting the results, the study used confirmatory composite analysis (CCA) via PLS-SEM to verify the confirmatory nature of the results. CCA is a technique focused on assessing the overall fit of a composite research model, thus confirming underlying theories. In PLS-SEM, CCA is designed to confirm the research models without considering their overall fit through a series of steps (Hubona et al., 2021). The initial phase of CCA involves assessing whether alpha values, composite reliability, factor loadings, AVE values and discriminant validity meet established validity criteria. The subsequent phase focused on analyzing collinearity statistics. The variance inflation factor (VIF) data showed that the values for all constructs ranged between 1.0 and 3.0, indicating that the structural model did not pose a limitation for the result estimation. Moreover, VIF results below 3.2 effectively dismiss concerns of common method bias (Kock, 2015), suggesting that the data are not improperly inflated and are free from significant measurement errors (Schaller et al., 2015).

Analyzing the values of $R2$values are higher than 0.53, which indicates a good predictive power (Hair et al., 2021). Then we continued with the calculation of predictive relevance $f2$⁠. The results were above 0.16, which suggests an important effect between the exogenous and endogenous constructs (Hair et al., 2021). After analyzing the correlation and significance of the proposed hypotheses, nomological validity is supported, as the results are consistent with the proposed theoretical direction (Cronbach and Meehl, 1955). The nomological network, the last step of CCA, confirms the predictions of the seeking model and the proposed instrument, which supports the congruence of the forthcoming results, concluding that the study was confirmed by meeting the CCA criteria of Hair et al. (2020).

Prior to presenting the results, a cross-validated predictive ability test (CVPAT) was performed to compare the predictive abilities of the research model. CVPAT was used to evaluate the effectiveness with which the results obtained by PLS-SEM could predict future results. In addition, CVPAT allows the determination of the ability of a model to make accurate predictions regarding data that have not yet been observed. This was achieved by k-fold cross-validation (Liengaard et al., 2021). For the test, we ran PLS-Predict and analyzed the CVPAT values to observe whether there was predictive accuracy for all endogenous constructs simultaneously (Sharma and Nagdev, 2021). The data in Table 3 reflect the indicator-average prediction benchmark (IA), reflecting a significantly lower mean loss (IA = p < 0.05). Compared with the linear model prediction benchmark data (LM = p < 0.05), the data in Table 4 establishes that the IA data presented a significantly lower mean than the LM prediction, indicating that the proposed model has high predictive validity (Liengaard et al., 2021; Sharma and Nagdev, 2021).

The results for the proposed hypotheses are shown in Figure 2. The analysis begins with the H1 looking at whether the use of TikTok for entertainment gratification by Generation Z users has a positive impact on Consume (H1aβ = 0.24, p > 0.01; t = 3.438, t > 1.960), Create (H1bβ = −0.21, p > 0.01; t = 3.857, t > 1.960) and Contribute (H1cβ = 0.11, p > 0.01; t= 2.373, t > 1.960). This supports our hypothesis, but interestingly, the data reflects a negative relationship between entertainment and branded content creation. This suggests that, as entertainment increases, content creation decreases. This result is in line with U&G theory, since as entertainment increases, the motivation to create content decreases. This is supported by the passive orientation of content consumption, which means that as entertainment gratification increases, consumers adopt a more receptive than an active role (Shao, 2009).

The analysis continued to look at the H1 in its use of TikTok for reward gratification purposes by Generation Z users has a positive impact on Consume (H2aβ = 0.18, p > 0.01; t = 3.089, t > 1.960), Create (H2bβ = 0.31, p > 0.01; t = 7.232, t > 1.960) and Contribute (H2cβ = 0.12, p > 0.01; t = 2.970, t > 1.960). Therefore, this hypothesis is supported. By continuing to analyze how empowerment H3 impact on Consume (H3aβ = 0.20, p > 0.01; t = 3.269, t > 1.960), Create (H3bβ = −0.09, p > 0.01; t = 1.611, t > 1.960) and Contribute (H3cβ = 0.16, p > 0.01; t = 3.554, t > 1.960). These results partially supported the hypothesis that empowerment does not significantly affect content create. This negative relationship implies that if Generation Z consumers are empowered, it will have no effect on their content contribution. Theoretically, this is explained by excessive extrinsic motivation. Deci and Ryan (2013) pointed out that when users perceive that participation is excessively motivated by external rewards, they may experience a loss of autonomy. This implies a reduction in the willingness to create content in a genuine manner (Frey and Jegen, 2001). Therefore, the results suggest that when the expectation of remuneration is not fulfilled or seen as insufficient, frustration or disinterest may arise, discouraging the active creation of content.

The analysis continues by looking at H4 by observing whether the gratification derived from information seeking on TikTok by Generation Z users has a positive impact on Consume (H4aβ = 0.06, p > 0.01; t = 0.932, t > 1.960), Create (H4bβ = 0.06, p > 0.01; t = 1.166, t > 1.960) and Contribute (H4cβ = −0.10, p > 0.1; t = 2.211, t > 1.960). These data partially support our hypothesis. However, notably, consumers seeking more information on the platform have a lower contribution of content from Generation Z users to TikTok. We then analyzed the $H5$ by observing whether the use of TikTok for personal identity gratification by Generation Z users has a positive impact on Consume (H5aβ = 0.11, p > 0.01; t = 1.704, t > 1.960), Create (H5bβ = 15, p > 0.01; t = 2.578, t > 1.960) and Contribute (H5cβ = 0.28, p > 0.01; t = 5.158, t > 1.960). The data partially support the hypothesis that personal identity does not affect TikTok’s consumption of branded content. And by analyzing the data from the $H6$ through Integration and Social Interaction and its impact on Consume (H6aβ = 0.05, p > 0.01; t = 0.887, t > 1.960), Create (H6bβ = 0.29, p > 0.01; t = 5.398, t > 1.960) and Contribute (H6cβ = 0.15, p > 0.01; t = 2.284, t > 1.960). In this case, the data partially supports this hypothesis.

The analysis goes on to look at whether Generation Z users consume branded content on the TikTok platform significantly impacts (H6β = 0.42, p > 0.01; t = 10.498, t > 1.960) on branded content create and whether it then affects (H7β = 0.26, p > 0.01; t = 5.754, t > 1.960) the contribute of branded content. Thus, both hypotheses were supported. Finally, it was analyzed whether the consume (H8β = 0.16, p > 0.01; t = 2.912, t > 1.960), create (H9β = 0.13, p > 0.01; t = 2.611, t > 1.960) and contribute (H10β = 0.57, p > 0.01; t = 10.234, t > 1.960) of branded content by Generation Z users on the TikTok platform significantly impacts purchase intention. This finding supports the second set of hypotheses.

Previous COBRAs models primarily focused on the direct effects of establishing implications rather than adopting a multidimensional perspective (Piehler et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2019). However, motivations for SNS use and the resulting gratifications are inherently multidimensional, encompassing a range of behavioral factors (Whiting and Williams, 2013). This multidimensionality also applies to the consume, create and contribute of content. While Muntinga et al. (2011) suggest that these activities form a continuous process, analyzing their individual dimensions provides insights into how they influence purchase intention (Paine, 2011; France et al., 2016). The second part of our analysis adjusts the model to include a multidimensional perspective to yield more precise implications by establishing the following.

Prior to data analysis, CVPAT COMPARE was run. Like the CVPAT, this test allows for a comparison of alternate research models. By comparing the original model with the alternative model, the predictive accuracy for the studied phenomenon was established (Sharma and Nagdev, 2021). As in the CVPAT test, we ran an analysis of the alternate model. The indicator-average prediction benchmark (IA) and linear model prediction benchmark (LM) were then evaluated to interpret the data. The data in Table 5, for both the original and alternate model exceeded IA= p < 0.05. Compared with LM = p < 0.05, both models maintained high predictive power. However, the alternate model retained a statistically larger effect than the original proposed model. Therefore, the alternative model offers the highest predictive accuracy for the development of the implications (Sharma and Nagdev, 2021). This leads to the conclusion that the COBRAs model should be analyzed from a multidimensional perspective. This allowed us to specify how each dimension acted in the research model (Hair et al., 2020).

To run the second part, the research model (see Figure 3) was adjusted from a multidimensional perspective and the hierarchical component model (HCM) test was run. HCM is effective because it reduces the number of relationships and provides a more accurate understanding of how each dimension acts on a first-order variable (Hair et al., 2020). For the analysis, the repeated-indicator approach proposed by Ringle et al. (2012) was executed, and the model fit the reflective–reflective because both the lower-order and higher-order constructs were reflective and supported according to the significance levels of t >1.960 (Ringle et al., 2012). The data in Figure 4 lead to support H11 that motivations to SNS use, is a multidimensional variable in that its need gratification is first explained by entertainment (H11at = 33.626, t > 1.960), then by personal identity (H11ct = 26.702, t > 1.960), followed by integration and social interaction (H11bt = 26.570, t > 1.960), empowerment (H11ft = 26.126, t > 1.960), information seeking (H11dt = 25.645, t > 1.960) and finally for remuneration (H11et > 22.349, t = 1.960).

We then analyzed the H12 which observed whether the motivations to use SNSs, their need gratification significantly impacts consume (H12aβ = 0.72, p > 0.01; t = 23.866, t > 1.960), create (H12bβ = 0.41, p > 0.01; t = 8.504, t > 1.960) and contribute (H12cβ = 0.58, p > 0.01; t = 15.274, t > 1.960). Therefore, the data support the proposed hypotheses. The analysis continued with $H13$ supporting the hypothesis by observing that COBRAs is a multidimensional variable that is explained in the first place by contribute (H13ct = 39.405 t > 1.960) followed by content create (H13bt = 35.030) and finally by consume (H13bt = 34.803). In the end the data support the hypothesis by analyzing whether brand engagement through COBRAs significantly affects (H14β = 0.79 p > 0.01 t = 34.340 t > 1.960) on purchase intention.

The study of consumer engagement, particularly through the U&G perspective and its influence on COBRAs’ behavior and purchase intention, is a burgeoning area in scientific literature. This study contributes to the theoretical understanding of engagement and consumer behavior. Our results demonstrate that media engagement is initially driven by hedonic gratifications such as entertainment, empowerment and remuneration, leading to branded content consumption. However, utilitarian gratification emerges once hedonic gratification is achieved. The findings indicate that all motivations for TikTok use, except information seeking, encourage the creation of branded content. As engagement with the medium deepens, these motivations further stimulate the contribution of the branded content.

Main conclusions

Hedonic motivations (entertainment, social interaction and identity) drive TikTok usage among Gen Z, evolving toward utilitarian gratification. This study reflects three new gratifications that influence user-generated content (UGC) and purchase intent. It concludes that engagement facilitates user gratification, increases participation in COBRAs (consume, contribute and create) and strengthens purchase intent.

Theoretical or managerial implications

Theoretically, the COBRAs model and the uses and gratifications theory are expanded by evidencing a transition from playful to strategic engagement on platforms such as TikTok. Therefore, brands must design interactive content that stimulates both entertainment and perceived usefulness, generating greater contribution, consumption and conversion among Gen Z. Managers must adopt content strategies that respond to these dual motivations to maximize the commercial value of TikTok among young digital audiences.

The findings of this study are particularly significant, as they extend COBRAs analysis beyond the realms of platforms such as Facebook, which has been the focus of recent research (Piehler et al., 2019; Cheung et al., 2021). While studies have compared platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube (Nastisin et al., 2023; Buzeta et al., 2020), they did not specifically address TikTok. Our results reveal that TikTok effectively stimulates the contribution of branded content across various motivators, a notable insight that has not been identified in previous studies. Moreover, examining the results from a multidimensional perspective highlights the significance of each motivation in fulfilling user needs and its impact on the consume, create and contribute actions related to branded content. These results are relevant because they theoretically reinforce the findings of Cuesta-Valiño et al. (2022) on the behavior of Generation Z users on TikTok. By gratifying the needs of these users, TikTok fosters continuous motivation to use it, driven by the satisfaction gained from previous experiences, which explains the desire to consume, create and contribute branded content on the platform. This is explained by hedonic consumption experiences, which once gratified mobilize the continuous use of the platform (Abbasi et al., 2023).

Additionally, the findings contribute to the theoretical development of engagement and U&G, particularly regarding psychological ownership and self-transformation in consumer-brand relationships. From the U&G perspective, both hedonic and utilitarian dimensions significantly influence brand engagement among Generation Z, prompting them to consume, create and contribute branded content to TikTok. Harmeling et al. (2016) emphasize that psychological ownership is a critical factor in the theoretical framework of engagement, as it encapsulates a consumer’s sense of ownership and control in their interactions with brands. This form of gratification is particularly evident in TikTok, where the platform’s content model facilitates Generation Z’s engagement with brands, and fosters a sense of ownership and control. TikTok’s user-friendly approach enables both organic and paid content to be perceived as nonintrusive and seamlessly integrated into the platform’s user experience without disruption (Ruiz, 2021).

However, the findings suggest that not all hedonic or utilitarian gratifications necessarily lead to greater active engagement, challenging the common linear assumption of previous studies (Chen et al., 2024; Pranata et al., 2024). For example, the finding that entertainment reduces content creation indicates that, in certain contexts, immediate gratification can inhibit active participation, revealing a passive dimension within intensive media consumption (Shao, 2009). Likewise, the negative effect of remuneration on the creation of content allows for a reinterpretation of the “creation” dimension of COBRAs not only as behavior activated by incentives but also conditioned by the perceived authenticity and the intrinsic motivation of the user (Deci and Ryan, 2013). This negative relationship between information and content contribution suggests that, in contexts where cognitive search prevails, active contribution may be limited by perceptions of competence or credibility, which adds a cognitive layer to the COBRAs participation model. Therefore, activation or inhibition is influenced by the type of gratification sought and media context.

Harmeling et al. (2016) highlighted that self-transformation involves a change in one’s mental self-image due to brand interactions. In U&G terms, self-transformation is tied to usage, with personal identity, social interaction and experience being key motivators for TikTok use. These results are in line with those of previous studies, highlighting that engagement in TikTok is influenced by users’ motivations and social identities. The quest to express their individuality and conform to social norms prevalent on platforms such as TikTok (Bhandari and Bimo, 2020; Zulli and Zulli, 2022). Therefore, these factors enable a bond with brands explained by engagement, as TikTok not only shapes individual identities but also influences bonds with brands more broadly.

Various forms of media engagement have emerged in recent years. First, personal engagement, stimulating utilitarian values such as receiving likes, contributes to branded content as a self-expression (Bucknell Bossen and Kottasz, 2020). Social-interactive engagement enables Generation Z users to bolster their social capital, viewing the creation and contribution of branded content as social interaction (Meservy et al., 2019). Finally, the TikTok experience, which is often linked to entertainment, maintains pleasant user experience. This affects how users consume, create and contribute to the branded content. Prior COBRAs studies indicate that entertainment primarily affects content consumption and creation (Lee et al., 2019; Buzeta et al., 2020), with less emphasis on contribution. However, our data suggest that TikTok’s content model enhances user enjoyment by fostering stronger engagement as users find consuming, creating and contributing to enjoyable branded content.

Third, our study theoretically advances by identifying new forms of gratification beyond those established in the COBRAs’ framework. Sundar and Limperos (2013) argued that not all gratifications originate from innate needs, suggesting that SNSs affordances can create unique gratifications. Our data imply that TikTok’s impact on consumer, create and contribute actions can be partly attributed to its model-based gratifications, which stem from varied content presentation methods. TikTok’s realism engages Generation Z through authentic and compelling content, while aspects like Coolness and Novelty maintain engagement with trending and innovative features. Moreover, interactivity-based gratifications allow real-time interaction with content (Sundar and Limperos, 2013), facilitating dynamic two-way communication and community formation between TikTok users and brands, thereby enhancing user satisfaction and engagement and influencing COBRAs. These findings are significant as they extend the COBRAs framework beyond traditional U&G usage motivations by introducing new gratifications in contemporary communication media. This expansion enriches the applicability of the COBRAs framework in analyzing engagement, accommodating emerging media dynamics and user interactions. These findings extend the U&G theory by demonstrating that, in the context of modern social networks, gratifications can be dynamic, multifaceted and not necessarily mutually exclusive.

Fourth, our data theoretically affirm that consume, create and contribute actions related to branded content form a sequential process. Additionally, analyzing these actions from a multidimensional perspective offers insights into their impact on purchase intent. While COBRAs typically focus on limited engagement in specific actions, integrating these actions with CBE theory enriches our understanding of consumer behavior. CBE suggests that COBRAs’ activities are not just manifestations of brand engagement; they significantly enhance consumer-brand relationships. These findings indicate that TikTok facilitates continuous and meaningful interaction. The UGC on the platform reflects the current engagement. It also promotes increased consumer loyalty by elucidating how each action influences the purchase intent.

Finally, the results of this study stand out because unlike studies focused on platforms such as Facebook or Instagram, where participation is analyzed from static and linear logic, this research reveals how gratifications evolve dynamically from hedonic to utilitarian, sequentially affecting the dimensions of consumption, creation and contribution. Furthermore, new forms of gratification are identified, which theoretically broadens the explanatory scope of the COBRAs model.

This study has important implications for marketing practice. First, marketers must recognize responses to content design that gratifies both hedonic and utilitarian needs. Therefore, the content should be entertaining and fun, while simultaneously representing the identity of the user to provide social presence. This allows for greater involvement by strengthening a deeper value delivery that generates a sense of identity and belonging. These data show that once TikTok users encounter content that reflects their values and lifestyles, this content tends to resonate more effectively, promoting engagement that lasts over time (Navarrete, 2024).

Second, in terms of the creation and contribution of content, the results indicate that it has positive effects on attitudinal measures. Therefore, marketing experts must take advantage of this pattern of behavior on TikTok platforms to develop content through challenges, the use of hashtags and so on. To increase the visibility of a brand, it connects with its audience through authentic content. These results were in agreement with those reported by Cheung et al. (2021); Piehler et al. (2019) found that active interaction actions through the creation of content by users increase engagement and brand loyalty. Ultimately, TikTok facilitates the creation of links between users and brands through real-time interactions and community formation, thereby reinforcing participation and engagement. Therefore, brands should explore and leverage these interactive features during their campaigns. This is in line with other studies that show that once interactive features are used in marketing campaigns, it allows an emotional connection with users, thus amplifying brand authenticity and engagement (Zulli and Zulli, 2022; Montag et al., 2019). For instance, Dantas (2022) highlights how brands such as the NBA have successfully adapted their content strategies to the specific dynamics of TikTok by adopting a more accessible and entertainment-focused approach to engage younger audiences in social presence. Similarly, companies like Chipotle have implemented participatory campaigns through viral hashtag challenges such as the well-known #GuacDance, resulting in high levels of user interaction. These cases exemplify how various brands effectively leverage playful content, interactive mechanisms and inclusive strategies in TikTok to enhance user engagement, consolidate visibility and strengthen their positioning within the platform’s digital ecosystem.

Finally, the results underline the need for brands to optimize their content according to the principles of the personalization algorithm, as this plays a central role in the visibility, reach and engagement of content on platforms such as TikTok (Pranata et al., 2024; Barta et al., 2023). By understanding that the algorithm prioritizes content aligned with the user’s previous interests and behaviors, brands can design strategies based on behavioral micro segmentation, thus maximizing the organic exposure and communicative effectiveness of their campaigns. This personalized approach not only increases the likelihood of interaction but also improves the perceived relevance of brand content, fostering a more authentic and sustained connection with digital audiences.

Among its limitations, this study focused exclusively on the motivations outlined in the COBRAs framework, omitting other potential motivators. One key finding is that the evolving nature of new SNS platforms necessitates a reevaluation of how remuneration is conceptualized and analyzed. Future research should explore how the updated forms of remuneration that emerge from new social media dynamics affect COBRAs. Another limitation is the lack of consideration of the demographic factors and usage duration. The literature suggests that consumer behavior, particularly among younger demographics, can vary significantly according to factors such as gender. Additionally, analyzing how engagement behaviors evolve over time could provide insights into shifting consumer patterns.

Another limitation of this study is the lack of an in-depth analysis of demographic diversity and possible cultural differences in the use of TikTok. Although the sample reflects the demographic characteristics aligned with the overall profile of the platform’s users, there may be significant cultural variations that cannot be easily extrapolated to other sociocultural contexts. According to Martinez et al. (2024), the way people interact with TikTok is not homogeneous, but depends largely on cultural and demographic factors. The platform incorporates social norms, values and expectations specific to each cultural group (Vizcaíno-Verdú and Aguaded, 2022). Thus, while interaction with content may vary between collectivist and individualistic cultures, TikTok also offers a space where users, regardless of their cultural background, can express their identities and experiences in a particular way, influenced by their sociocultural context (Vizcaíno-Verdú and Aguaded, 2022; Martinez et al., 2024).

This study marks progress in the application of COBRAs by introducing a novel perspective on the role of interactive motivators in consumer engagement in TikTok. Further research is essential to comprehensively understand this process and its applicability to various contexts, ultimately enhancing the connection between users and brands.