Managerial coaching as antecedent to employee engagement and organization citizenship behaviors: evidence from India

Building a pool of human resource with valuable knowledge, skills, and abilities and motivated to perform in ways that contribute to the goals of the organization is the primary objective of human resource management (HRM) (Jiang et al., 2012). Toward this end, the employee development dimension of HRM plays a vital role as it not only builds human capital, the sum total of knowledge, skills, and abilities, but also develops positive employee attitudes and behaviors toward the organization (Fletcher, 2019; Kuvaas and Dysvik, 2010). To explain how human resource (HR) practices influence employee attitudes and behaviors, research has drawn on the social exchange theory (SET) which suggests that when employees perceive support from HR practices for their development and well-being, a social exchange-based (employment) relationship is fostered which gives rise to feelings of obligation on the part of the employees to reciprocate in positive ways toward the organization (Cropanzano and Mitchell, 2005). It therefore becomes pertinent to evaluate HR practices from the employees’ perspective. Perceived investment in employee development (PIED) has been defined as employees’ assessment of the organization’s commitment to helping them learn new skills and competencies to enhance their performance and employability within and outside the organization (Lee and Bruvold, 2003). The central principle of PIED is that it enhances employees’ belief that the organization is committed to their personal and professional growth leading them to reciprocate in ways that benefit the organization. Correspondingly, PIED has been associated with increased affective commitment, job satisfaction, individual performance, and reduced turnover intention (Kuvaas and Dysvik, 2010; Lee and Bruvold, 2003). However, in most organizations, the priority for short-term business goals overshadows concern for employee development (Brown et al., 2019). Correspondingly, organizational training interventions have been criticized for being ineffective and superficial (Glaveski, 2019). There is also a lack in understanding of how employee development practices influence employee attitudes and behaviors that can adequately guide the practitioner (Fletcher, 2019).

Simultaneously, employee attitudes and behaviors are shaped not only by the organization’s HR policies but also by the leadership behaviors of the line manager (Alfes et al., 2013; Chang et al., 2020; Dewettinck and Vroonen, 2017). Line managers, because of their psychological and physical proximity and as they are also increasingly involved in the implementation of HR practices; have a greater influence over employees than formal HR practices (Purcell and Hutchinson, 2007). A specific form of line manager leadership behavior that in recent times has received a lot of attention among researchers and practitioners is managerial coaching (Ellinger and Kim, 2014). It is defined as the:

The focus is on helping employees achieve personal growth and development along with improved skills, competence, and performance (Beattie et al., 2014). Literature shows positive effects of managerial coaching on a variety of employee outcomes, namely, role clarity and satisfaction with work (Kim et al., 2013), intrinsic motivation and work commitment (Haryanto, 2021), work engagement and reduced turnover intentions (Lee et al., 2019), creativity, learning (Maamari et al., 2022) and improved performance across organizational levels (Agarwal et al., 2009; Liu and Batt, 2010). However, despite the potential benefits, most organizations lack a systematic approach to managerial coaching. There is also a lack of empirical evidence that shows how managerial coaching effects motivational changes (Beattie et al., 2014; Maamari et al., 2022). Hence, there is a need for more empirical research to advance theory and practice.

Employee engagement and organization citizenship behaviors (OCB) have received a lot of attention in the literature. According to Kahn (1990), employee engagement represents the investment of one’s self in work role performance, by harnessing one’s cognitive, emotional, and physical energies. Studies show that employee engagement is positively associated with higher levels of employee morale, task performance, extra-role performance, and organizational commitment (Bailey et al., 2017; Blazej, 2018). Rich et al. (2010) suggested that employee engagement is a more holistic representation of individual attitude and a stronger determinant of performance than other attitudinal constructs, namely, job involvement, job satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation. OCBs are the employee behaviors characterized by helpfulness, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue (Organ, 1988) that are not explicitly defined in the formal job requirements but are vital for the effective functioning of the organization. OCB has been found to significantly predict employee performance, decreased turnover, and improved unit and organization-level performance (Podsakoff et al., 2009).

Most research on engagement (Bailey et al., 2017) and OCB (Podsakoff et al., 2000) have considered the broader perceived organizational support (POS), perceived supervisor support (PSS), and leader-member exchange (LMX) as antecedents. There is little research on specific HR practices and managerial behaviors as antecedents that can provide specific recommendations to the practitioner (Bailey et al., 2017). On the basis of SET, it is most likely that employee perceptions of PIED and managerial coaching are antecedents to engagement and OCB. Therefore, the objective of this study is to test empirically whether PIED and managerial coaching are positively associated with employee engagement and OCB. The literature suggests differentiating OCBs on the basis of the target recipients to arrive at more precise findings. Lee and Allen (2002) suggested that OCBs directed toward the organization (OCBO) are more driven by employee job cognitions (job meaningfulness, work place justice, leader behaviors), and OCBs directed toward the individual (OCBI) are more driven by employee’s individual affect (positive or negative moods). Hence, the OCBO dimension shall be considered as the outcome of employee behavior for this study.

Indian and other eastern cultures are broadly classified into high-power distance and in-group collectivist cultures. High power distance is characterized by a greater propensity to accept authority and unequal distribution of power. Thus, open feedback, partnership, disagreements, and detailed discussions for development between managers and employees are unlikely in high-power distance cultures. High in-group collectivism is characterized by a greater propensity to prioritize group interests over individual interests. Social relations take precedence over professional relations at the work place leading to a lack of objective performance assessments and avoidance of constructive criticism to maintain social acceptability and harmony (Nadeem and Tayyab, 2021). Managerial coaching requires a value shift from a traditional controlling and directive management style to a human resource development (HRD) approach based on participation, empowerment, and self-direction. Such a management style seems to be incompatible with the norms of high-power distance and in-group collectivism in Indian culture (Kim et al., 2013). Conversely, Sinha (2001) argued that due to a relationship-orientated nature of Indian culture, subordinates prefer to maintain a personalized and dependency relation with superiors necessitating a greater need for managers to take on the coaching role and foster personalized supportive relationship with employees. This suggests that managerial coaching could be a more vital leadership behavior in the Indian than in the Western context. Therefore, another objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness of managerial coaching in the Indian context considering these conflicting propositions.

This study shall contribute to the literature in the following ways. First, the study responds to calls for more empirical research on how PIED and managerial coaching influence employee attitudes and behaviors. This is the first study to include PIED and managerial coaching in a single model which shall enable a comparative assessment of these factors. Second, the study goes beyond the broader perceived organizational and managerial support antecedents, that have dominated the extant literature, to specific HR development practice, represented by PIED, and managerial leadership behavior, represented by managerial coaching, as antecedents to engagement and OCBO. Third, most research has conceptualized HRM in terms of bundles of HR practices suggesting that the presence of such systems in the aggregate will lead to desired employee and organization outcomes. Such an approach has limited practical implications as it ignores the unique effects of individual practices on employee outcomes and the way in which managers and employees engage with and shape these practices in the real world (Trullen et al., 2020; Tyskbo, 2020). Our study responds to calls for practice-based HRM research by focusing on employees’ experience of the formal HR development practice and the informal managerial coaching practice. Fourth, although Kahn’s (1990) original concept of engagement as the simultaneous expression of emotional, physical, and cognitive self in work role performance has been suggested as the more holistic representation of the self, most studies have deviated from this concept in favor of the job demand-resource (JD-R) framework of engagement (Bailey et al., 2017). According to the JD-R framework (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004) engagement results when job resources adequately compensate the detrimental effects of job demands; such a conceptualization limits engagement to a transactional concept that fails to explain the underlying individual emotions and motivations. This study responds to a call by Bailey et al. (2017) for more empirical studies on engagement based on Kahn’s (1990) concept. Fifth, globalization has led to the widespread adoption of management practices developed in Western cultures into Eastern cultures. However, divergence in intended and actual HRM has been attributed to the prevalence of in-group collectivism and power distance in Eastern cultures (Nadeem and Tayyab, 2021). The results from this study shall demonstrate if managerial coaching as a systematic practice can be effective in the Indian context.

The Indian pharmaceutical industry enjoys a global leadership position contributing more than 20% and 60% of the global supply of generic medicine and vaccines, respectively (Invest India website, 2022). The industry is poised to grow significantly with total revenue expected to reach US$130bn by 2030 (Ernst and Young LLP, 2021). It is however facing acute shortage of talent and high attrition rates. Concerns over the implementation of talent management practices are cited as the primary reason for the HR challenges (Sharda, 2016). Sikkim, a state in north-eastern India, is one of the fastest-growing pharmaceutical hubs in the country (Mukherjee, 2009). Buoyed by government incentives, pharmaceuticals became the major industry and employer in this recently industrializing region. The industry is however faced with a unique challenge in labor relations in Sikkim; most managers belong to ethnicities from outside the region whereas most line-level employees belong to local ethnicities. Conflicts between labor and management have been attributed to differences in cultural and racial identities between the groups (Chettri, 2023). It will be worthwhile to understand the effects of managerial coaching in this context.

According to SET, employers and employees participate in an ongoing exchange of resources defined by implicit norms of reciprocity and trust. Opportunities for personal development, such as assignments in new projects and formal learning, signals employees that the organization values them as individuals vital for the success of the organization. This gives rise to the employee obligation to reciprocate in ways to benefit the organization (Fletcher, 2019). As individuals subconsciously assess job conditions to determine the level of personal engagement to bring to the work-role performance (Kahn, 1990), employees could reciprocate positive social exchanges with increased levels of engagement. Correspondingly, studies have shown positive associations between perceived HRM bundles (Alfes et al., 2013), organizational support (Rich et al., 2010), and engagement. Additionally, Kahn (1990) theorized that psychological meaningfulness, the sense of receiving and giving value in a job-role, is a necessary condition for engagement. Opportunities to develop one’s skills, abilities, and career aspirations could foster feelings of being valued for one’s contribution leading to higher levels of engagement. Correspondingly, perceived opportunities for development have been linked to job engagement through mediation by psychological meaningfulness (Fletcher, 2019). Therefore, PIED is likely to be positively associated with engagement.

There is however scarcity of studies exploring the association between employee perception of development opportunities and engagement. A limited number of studies have shown the association of PIED with outcomes associated with engagement, such as; Zaitouni (2016) who found a significant and positive association between PIED and affective commitment, and Lee and Bruvold (2003) who found that PIED was associated with increased job satisfaction and affective commitment which in turn reduced the intent to leave in a cross-cultural study in US and Singapore. Akkermans et al. (2019) found training and development practices enhance employability which was further linked to organizational commitment. Hence, we arrive at the following hypothesis:

Most studies on the antecedents to OCB have also based the findings on the SET framework (Lemoine et al., 2015; Podsakoff et al., 2000). It has been argued that as social exchange relationship is fostered out of trust, commitment, and feelings of obligation, it explains why employees display OCBs even when they may not be explicitly rewarded for engaging in such extra-role behaviors. On the contrary, economic relationships are impersonal and transactional in nature in which employees perform what is required in exchange for financial and other tangible benefits and therefore do not explain OCB. Shore et al. (2006) found that POS was positively associated with OCB through mediation by affective commitment and social exchange relationship. Likewise, PIED is likely to be associated with a greater degree of social exchange-based employment relationship leading to enhanced OCBO. Correspondingly, few studies have demonstrated a positive link between PIED and OCB (Kuvaas and Dysvik, 2010; Zaitouni, 2016). Although these studies have focused on the generic OCB construct, PIED is likely to demonstrate a similar positive association with the OCBO dimension. Hence, we arrive at the following hypothesis:

Most research on managerial leadership behavior has centered around the overall PSS and its association with various employee outcomes, including employee engagement (Alfes et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2023) and OCB (Kaur and Randhawa, 2021; Kuvaas and Dysvik, 2010). Although managerial coaching is a vital leadership behavior studies on managerial coaching as an antecedent to engagement and OCB is scarce (Lee et al., 2019).

Literature has drawn on diverse theories to explain the effects of managerial coaching on employee outcomes, namely, the SET (Ribeiro et al., 2021), organizational support theory (Eisenberger et al., 2002), job-demands resources theory (JDR) (Lee et al., 2019) and organizational learning theories (Ladyshewsky and Taplin, 2018). The organizational support theory suggests that employees view supervisors as agents of the organization and hence relate supervisor support to the organization’s support toward them (Eisenberger et al., 2002). Considered together with SET, this suggests that coaching received from the manager could be reciprocated by employees with enhanced engagement. Ali et al. (2018), on the basis of SET, demonstrated a positive association between coaching and engagement which in turn predicted enhanced job performance. On the basis of the JD-R framework (Bakker and Demerouti, 2017) managerial coaching is posited as a job resource that stimulates a motivational process leading to engagement while simultaneously negating the detrimental effects of job demands. Lee et al. (2019) posited transformational leadership style and coaching as job resources in their study and found that transformational leadership manifested into managerial coaching behaviors which in turn predicted job engagement. Ladyshewsky and Taplin (2018) argued that a manager’s involvement in coaching builds a strong organizational learning culture characterized by shared perception among employees about learning priorities, expectations, and rewards which in turn leads to enhanced work engagement. Their results indicated that managerial coaching was positively associated with work engagement through mediation by an organizational learning culture.

According to Kahn (1990), the experience of psychological meaningfulness and safety are two necessary conditions for personal engagement. Literature indicates managerial coaching leads to job cognitions that are antecedents to these psychological conditions. For e.g. managerial coaching has been linked with role clarity and satisfaction with work (Kim et al., 2013), intrinsic motivation (Haryanto, 2021), and affective well-being at work (Romão et al., 2022). These job cognitions are expected to foster feelings of psychological meaningfulness in work role performance. Kahn (1990) also suggested that a supportive, resilient, and clarifying managerial style allows people to show and employ their personal self in work role performance without fear of negative consequences leading to feelings of psychological safety. May et al. (2004) found a positive association between supportive supervisor relations and psychological safety. Avolio et al. (2004) argued that managers foster employees’ trust through open communications, sharing critical information, and demonstrating commitment to their success. A trusting relationship shall in turn enhance employee engagement. It could therefore be argued that managerial coaching fosters social exchange-based relationships and conditions of psychological meaningfulness and safety leading to personal engagement. Hence, we arrive at the following hypothesis:

The SET and organizational support theory have also been used to deduce the association between managerial support and OCB. For e.g. Kaur and Randhawa (2021) found a positive association between supervisory support and OCB mediated by employee participation in decision-making and job involvement. Similarly, Kuvaas and Dysvik (2010) found supervisor support for employee contribution and well-being had a positive influence on employees’ assessment of the organization’s commitment toward them which enhanced their enactment of OCB. This suggests that the encatment of coaching behaviors by managers will foster a social exchange relationship which will create an employee obligation to reciprocate with OCB toward the organization. Correspondingly, coaching has been positively linked with OCB (Maamari et al., 2022), including OCBI, OCBO (Raza et al., 2018), altruism and conscientiousness dimensions of OCB (Özduran and Tanova, 2017).

In a meta-analysis organizational commitment has been shown to be a significant predictor of OCBs (Podsakoff et al., 2000). O’Reilly and Chatman (1986) found that organization commitment through identification (i.e. when an individual accepts organizational values because of a desire to establish membership) and internalization (i.e. when the individual accepts organizational values because of congruence with personal values) are strongly related to prosocial behaviors. Peng and Chiu (2010) suggested that a supervisor feedback environment characterized by supportive feedback and interactions helps subordinates internalize organization goals which enhance organization commitment and consequently OCB. As managerial coaching has been associated with enhanced organizational commitment (Kalkavan and Katrinli, 2014; Kim et al., 2013), it can be argued that it positively predicts employees’ enactment of OCBO. Hence, managerial coaching could enhance OCBO by fostering a social exchange relationship and enhancing organization commitment through identification and internalization of organization values resulting in the following hypothesis:

Figure 1 provides the conceptual model showing the hypothesized relations.

An empirical study was adopted using a self-reported questionnaire. Non-managerial employees and first-level line managers were selected as the target group for the study as this group of employees in the formative stage of their career are likely to have a greater need for training and coaching. The pharmaceutical organizations mostly operate drug manufacturing facilities in Sikkim. The facilities operate under high security and access to outsiders is tightly controlled. Hence, the convinience sampling method was adopted for sample collection. The questionnaire consisted of 37 items. Five-point Likert scale was used, with values ranging from 1 denoting “strongly disagree,” 3 denoting “neither disagree nor agree” and 5 denoting “strongly agree.” To control for common method bias clear instructions were provided for the respondents, no personal identification was asked to ensure anonymity, and item positions were randomized (Kock et al., 2021). As the target group members were college-educated in English medium, the questions were framed in English. The sources of the constructs are shown in Table 1, and the items are listed in  Appendix 1 to 4.

Response to the questionnaires was filled by the target group between August 2022 to January 2024. Out of 188 questionnaires distributed, 142 responses were received (response rate 75.5%). Analysis was performed on 130 responses after data validation. Male respondents (n  = 103, 79%) outnumbered female respondents (n  = 27, 21%). The sample represented a variety of age groups from below 25 years to 40–45 years with the majority in the 25–35 years range (n  = 79, 61%). The respondents were either undergraduate or postgraduate (UG n  = 59 and PG n = 71). The mean work experience was 6.3 years.

To test our hypotheses, we used the partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) as it allows simultaneous analysis of both measurement and structural model leading to more accurate estimations and generally achieves higher levels of statistical power with smaller sample sizes in comparison to covariance based-structural equations modeling (Hair et al., 2014).

The following analysis includes the test of reliability and validity of the instruments used for measuring the constructs followed by a test of the hypothesized relations. As engagement is conceptualized as a second-order construct the reliability and validity of the measurement model was tested using the disjoint-two-stage approach (Sarstedt et al., 2019).

A full collinearity test, to check for common-method-bias after sample collection, was performed by regressing all constructs to a dummy dependent variable. The variance inflation factor (VIF) values of all constructs were less than 3.3 (Table 2), hence the model is considered free from common-method-bias (Kock, 2015). Next, items with factor loading less than 0.5 were dropped from the model (the dropped items are listed in Table 1). Janssens et al. (2008) suggested that Cronbach’s α between 0.6 and 0.7 indicates an acceptable level of internal consistency reliability. The Cronbach’s α of cognitive and physical engagement are less than 0.6. However, the composite reliability of all constructs, which is a more appropriate measure of internal consistency; is greater than 0.7 supporting the internal consistency reliability of the scales (Hair et al., 2019). The average variance extracted (AVE) for all constructs is above the minimum value of 0.5 except OCBO which has AVE value very close to 0.5 (0.498). As the composite reliability of OCBO is greater than 0.7 the model’s convergent validity is considered adequate (Lam, 2012). The internal consistency reliability and convergent validity results are displayed in Table 3.

The heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) test was used to confirm discriminant validity. As shown in Table 4, all HTMT values are less than 0.9 confirming discriminant validity (Hair et al., 2017).

We have adopted the second-order engagement construct of Rich et al. (2010). To conceptualize the second-order construct we followed the disjoint-two-stage approach due to its preferred use (Sarstedt et al., 2019). The values of Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability, AVE and factor loadings of second-order Engagement are above the minimum threshold indicating internal consistency reliability and convergent validity as shown in Table 5.

The HTMT values of second-order engagement with other constructs indicate discriminate validity as shown in Table 6.

The VIF of the independent constructs is within the acceptable range between 0.2 and 5.0 (Hair et al., 2017) therefore there is no issue of collinearity among the constructs. The results of the coefficients and coefficients of determination (R²) are shown in Figure 2. We have used bootstrapping with one-tailed t-test at 5% level of significance to assess the significance of the path coefficients. PIED has displayed a non-significant association with engagement and OCBO hence hypotheses H1 and H2 are not supported. Coaching has displayed a positive path coefficient with engagement and OCBO with t-values > 1.645 indicating statistical significance (Hair et al., 2017). Hence hypotheses H3 and H4 are supported. The effect size f² (Cohen, 1988) of coaching to engagement and OCBO is also significant. The results of path analysis are shown in Table 7.

The R² values of both engagement (0.373) and OCBO (0.333) are moderate (Chin, 1998) supporting the predictive relevance of the model.

The results of this study provide evidence that managerial coaching is significantly and positively associated with employee engagement, and OCBO. This finding is consistent with SET and organizational support theory and suggests that the day-to-day facilitation of job specific learning, open communications, and support for employee performance and development through managerial coaching will foster a social exchange-based employment relationship leading employees to reciprocate in positive ways toward the organization. This finding corroborates prior findings of positive association between managerial coaching and engagement (Ali et al., 2018; Ladyshewsky and Taplin, 2018; Lee et al., 2019) and OCB (Maamari et al., 2022; Özduran and Tanova, 2017; Raza et al., 2018).

Contrary to our expectation, PIED was not found to be significantly associated with employee engagement and OCBO. This could be attributed to the implementation of formal development practices in the pharmaceutical industry in India (Sharda, 2016) which could have led to the insignificant association of PIED with employee outcomes. This also corresponds to the negative moderation of LMX on the relation between high-performance work systems (HPWS) and task performance found by Chang et al. (2020) who suggested that high-quality LMX can substitute for the effect of HPWS on task performance.

This study has contributed to the literature in the following ways. First, it has added to the limited body of empirical evidence on how managerial coaching influences employee attitudes and behaviors (Kim et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2019; Maamari et al., 2022) specifically employee engagement (Bailey et al., 2017) and OCBO (Podsakoff et al., 2000). Second, prior studies have mostly studied the aggregate organizational and managerial support as antecedents to employee engagement and OCB, namely, perceived HPWS, POS, PSS, and LMX (Alfes et al., 2013; Chang et al., 2020; Kuvaas and Dysvik, 2010; Purcell and Hutchinson, 2007). This study contributes to the literature by providing evidence of specific forms of antecedents represented by PIED and managerial coaching. Third, the study highlights the significance of understanding the interactions between managerial leadership behaviors and formal HR practices in explaining the link between HRM and employee outcomes. Employees form social exchange relationships with both organization and managers (Settoon et al., 1996). Due to physical and psychological proximity line managers’ leadership behaviors could have a stronger influence over employee attitudes and behavior than formal HR systems (Kuvaas and Dysvik, 2010). More broadly, this study highlights the importance of undertaking practice-based HRM studies with a focus on individual HR practices and their implementation through the roles and interactions of the various actors involved in the process, especially the line managers who are the primary implementers of HRM (Tyskbo, 2020). Fourth, our findings confirm the theoretical validity of Kahn’s (1990) concept of employee engagement as the simultaneous expression of emotional, physical, and cognitive self in work role performance. This is a more holistic representation of engagement in comparison to the transactional concept of the JD-R framework and so deserves more attention in research. Further, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) has been most widely used for measuring engagement in extant literature although it is not based on Kahn’s (1990) concept and uncertainty remains over its reliability, validity, and generalizability (Bailey et al., 2017). Our results confirm the reliability and validity of the second-order engagement scale developed by Rich et al. (2010) which is closely based on Kahn’s (1990) concept and hence is recommended for use in future research. Finally, this study has provided evidence that managerial coaching can be an effective systematic practice in a high-power distance and in-group collectivist Indian culture. This supports similar findings on managerial coaching in the Korean context also characterized by a high power distance and collectivist culture (Kim et al., 2013). The significant variance in employee engagement and OCBO explained by our results could indicate that, due to impediments to HRD interventions caused by the presence of high-power distance and collectivism, managerial coaching could have a more significant influence on employee attitudes and behaviors in Eastern cultures than in western cultures (Nadeem and Tayyab, 2021).

According to a Gallup report (Gallup, 2023), only 23% of the global workforce, and engaged in their work. This is a cause of concern for policymakers, practitioners, and society at large. This study provides a strong rationale for organizations to invest in managerial coaching as a systematic practice to enhance employee engagement and OCBO. However, most organizations are not as serious about creating a coaching culture as it appears. Correspondingly, most managers lack the time and skills for coaching or fail to see its importance. Beattie et al. (2014) suggested three areas of improvement: a) creation of a systematic approach to coaching, b) provision of training, peer and executive coaching to improve managers’ coaching skills and behaviors, and c) increased evaluation of coaching activities. The common suggested themes for training managers in effective coaching behaviors are creating a learning environment, caring, and supporting staff, providing feedback, communicating and providing job resources (Beattie et al., 2014). Management strategies do not emphasize enough on the importance of interpersonal relation between managers and employees. Further, managerial performance should be assessed not only on operational outcomes but also on coaching outcomes.

Our results suggest that formal employee development practices in the Indian pharmaceutical industry are ineffective in enhancing employee engagement and OCB. This corresponds with the findings of Sharda (2016) who suggested that HRD practices in most pharmaceutical organizations in India were poorly implemented as short-term business goals took precedence over employee development. Correspondingly, training was ad hoc and unintegrated with the rest of the talent management practices such as performance and career management. Akkermans et al. (2019) suggested that HRD investments should lead to enhanced internal and external employability which in turn will lead employees to reciprocate with enhanced organization commitment creating a win-win scenario for both the employer and employees.

Although investments in formal development programs are necessary but fostering an ongoing coaching culture is of vital importance to develop human capital. Sung and Choi (2014) suggested that the positive effects of corporate training expenditure on performance became stronger when employees’ collective perception of the innovative climate was high. A way to foster such a climate is by embedding managerial coaching in the day-to-day performance management process by facilitating short-term goal setting, continuous feedback, and emphasis on development outcomes (Brown et al., 2019). Finally, as globalization leads to increasing adoption of Western-style management practices in Eastern cultures, the findings of this study suggest that there is much to gain from managerial coaching in the Indian context.

Both the antecedent and outcome measures were self-reported by employees. Future research should conduct dyadic studies mapping employee and manager perspectives. Due to a limited sample pool future research should gather samples across various industries and regions to establish the generalizability of the findings. To establish causality there is a need for longitudinal studies. Perceived managerial support has been known to interact with HR practices to shape employee attitudes and behaviors (Kuvaas and Dysvik, 2010; Liu and Batt, 2010). Accordingly, future research should test the moderating influence of managerial coaching in the association between PIED and employee outcomes. Finally, as HRD practices developed in the Western context are increasingly adopted in Eastern cultures, cross-cultural studies of managerial coaching are required to understand its relevance and challenges as a systematic HRD practice across different cultures.

The authors gratefully thank the anonymous reviewers from Vilakshan – XIMB Journal of Management for their indepth reviews, feedback and suggestions which have contributed immensely to this research paper.

Corrigendum: It has come to the attention of the publisher that the article, Wangchuk, S., Murari, K. and Das, P.K. (2024), "Managerial coaching as antecedent to employee engagement and organization citizenship behaviors: evidence from India", Vilakshan - XIMB Journal of Management, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 210-228. https://doi.org/10.1108/XJM-07-2023-0159, requires clarification to the methods section. The publisher would like to clarify that responses were initially collected in August 2022. During the review period of this article, further responses were collected in January 2024 to strengthen the sample size. This corrigendum is purely for clarification to the readers and does not affect the conclusions of the article.

The measurement scales used for this study are as follows: